Eastern India was famous for gold production in ancient and medieval period. People noticed the presence of gold particle in sands of different rivers of Assam. We can trace references on the abundance of gold in different rivers of Assam. . The Tezpur grants of Vanamālavarmadeva (835-885 AD) state that the river Lohitya carried down gold dust from gold bearing boulders of the Kailāsa Mountains[1].

Though, almost all rivers originated from Lesser Himalayas and Naga-Patkai Rang bear gold particles, the concept of “Golden Assam” is nothing but a myth without any scientific basis. This myth got a tremendous popularity by the grace of the foreign travellers. At that time geology as a discipline was not developed and well studied. So, everyone thought that there is a big bonanza of gold in the source of the rivers. In ancient time, Assam was an underdeveloped, unhealthy land without much scope of revenue. The rumours of presence of this big gold bonanza, was a major cause of repeated invasion to medieval Assam by different intruders. Such stories of gold play vital role in politics of medieval Assam. The Ahom court of medieval Assam was always suspicious regarding any invasion in search of gold. In 1755, a Bengal based French merchant Jean Baptiste Chevalier met King Rajeswara Simha and gave a proposal to explore and extract the gold of Assam by utilizing sophisticated European technology. The king refused to give such permission. The answer given by the king was noted exactly by Chevalier[2]. This answer was a reflection of much matured diplomacy. At that time, the memory of great invasion of Mirjumla was still fresh. Moreover, the Burmese aggressively started to occupy the Shan states (with whom, the Ahoms had continuous diplomatic relationship) of Northern Burma. The Europeans slowly started to gain political powers in Bengal. In such a political scenario, the news of discovery of big gold mine naturally attracted the attention of unfriendly neighbors. That was the cause of king’s refusal to accept Chevalier’s proposal at that time. 

Another French Explorer merchant Jean Baptiste Tavernier also mentioned the existence of Gold mines in Assam[3]. Tavernier mentioned some important points regarding the gold of Assam. He noticed very strict control on gold in Assam. According to him, no one was allowed to transfer gold from Assam and gold coins were not used in Assam[4]. Chevalier, mentioned earlier, visited Assam after 93 years of Tavernier’s visit. Chevalier saw teams of gold powder collector some distance upstream from ‘Kandhar Border Post’ and near mouth of the river Kolong[5]. Different English surveyors of 19th century also reported the news of presence of gold particles in the sand of rivers. William Robinson[6] and Francis Hamilton[7] documented such reports. According to Montgomery Martin, every river of north bank of the Brahmaputra, such as Sowansiri, Dikrang, Suwansiri, Borgāng carry gold particles. It should be noted here that Moniram Dewan prepared a detailed report on gold washing on Assam on behalf of East India Company, when he was working as Revenue Sirostadar and Tehsildar of East India Company. This report was published in Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal (Vol VII) in 1838 in the name of Moneeram Revenue Sheristadar Bur Bundaree[8]. This was the first research paper published by an Assamese in a research journal. According to Moniram Dewan, 7000 tolās (81.6522 kilogram) of gold, deposited in royal treasury, during the reign of King Rajeswara Simha, which lowered to 4000 tolās (46.66 kilogram) during the reign of King Gaurinath Simha. One tolā is equivalent to 11.6646 gram. Moniram Dewan mentioned 35 rivers as gold producing river.                        

Inspired from such reports and stories, the explorer from East India Company ran several of exploration along the rivers of Assam in 19th century. In 1853 AD, Captain E T Dalton explored along Joglu River, a tributary of Burhi Dihing River. Dalton was able to collect only 18 grains of gold after washing 1 ton of river sand (1 grain =0.0647989098 gm). In the same year, Captain Dalton and Major Hannay explored along Sisi River in Lakhimpur District and collected 15 grains of gold after washing 1 ton of sand[9].

The modern scholars also contributed a lot to popularize the myth of ‘golden Assam’.  ‘Artha Sāstra’ mentions a place known as Suvarnakudya. Dr Pratap Chandra Choudhury mentioned an infromation ‘Artha Sāstra’ in his famous PhD dissertation “History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelve-century AD[10]” published in 1959. According to Choudhury, Artha Sāstra gives us the information that huge quantity of gold was produced in Suvarnakudya of Kampupa. In the same dissertation, Choudhury also mentioned  a research of scholar N N Dasgupta where he proved that Suvarnakudya was situated in Kampupa and it was famous for its gold treasure. Dr Choudhury’s comment on gold of in his thesis has been quoted repeatedly in several research books and papers for last 57 years (from 1959 to 2016). Even recently, Dr Choudhury’s remark on gold has been directly quoted in   the Ph.D dissertation of Dr Dinesh Baishya, supervised by Dr Birendra Nath Dutta in 2009[11]. But Artha Sāstra speaks differently. The word Suvarnakudya has mentioned in Artha Sāstra for only two times[12]. But according to Artha Sāstra, Suvarnakudya produced resin (Toila pornika) and silk, not gold. Artha Sāstra mentions the place names, Jambu River, Satakumbha Mountains, Hataka, Benu and Sringasukti, where gold was produced[13]. Such type of research is responsible for expanding the myth of golden Assam.

  It is a fact that every river, flowing from Lesser Himalayas and Patkai Range carry small amount of gold particle. Nevertheless, the real source of these gold particles has remained a mystery for long. British explorers carried out several expeditions in search of the Lesser Himalayas and Patkai to discover the source of gold particles. However, no one can was to solve the mystery of placer gold of rivers of Assam. In 1967, Geologist Dr Pranab Jyoti Deka solved the problem of river gold placers of Assam. The source of river gold of Assam is a very uncommon from geological point of view. Therefore, it was very difficult to identify. During Cretaceous geological period (144 - 66.4 million years back), an eruption of chromium and magnetite bearing ultra basic lava had taken place along Indo-Burma border, from  East Manipur to Pātkāi Range and the whole of Lesser Himalayas. Very small grains of gold found within chromites and magnetite as inclusion. The rivers, flowing down over the solidified ultra basic, have been eroding the lava and releasing the gold particles. These gold particles have deposited in the foothills regions. The rivers carry the gold particles after eroding the solidified ultra basic lava. Where the velocity of the rivers current slowdown, the heavy gold particles are deposited as placer deposits. Presence of gold within ultra basic rock is a very rare geological phenomenon. In 1968, Dr Pranab Jyoti Deka proved it, for the first time, that ultra basic rock can bear gold inclusions[14]. But Dr. Deka never got proper recognition for this very important discovery. Today, people of Assam know Dr. Deka as compiler of “Jyoti Divashik Abhidhan” and creator of famous story, “Bewaris las”.

We have no explicit evidences of gold production in ancient Assam. But, we have implicit evidences of gold production during that time. Different rock sculptures and human figures of ancient Assam wear plenty of ornaments. These might be made up of gold. King Kumār Bhāskar Barman of 6th century sent a big consignment of gift articles to the Emperor of North India, Harsabardhana. Harsacharita of Banabhatta gives us a detailed list of the gifts. But it doesn’t mention of single gold ornament of in that consignment. Instead of gold ornament, he sent gold plated shield and gold-chained “kinnar”. Moreover, the precious gemstones that were sent to Harshabardhana were not gold mounted. Those were tied with thread only[15]. In 1972, some gold coins were discovered in Pāgolātek of Goalpara District of Assam. At first experts thought that, some king of Bengal minted these coins[16]. But later, two researcher N. G.  Rhodes and S. K.  Bose proved it that “Pāgolātek coins” were minted by king Kumar Bhaskar Barman. Same coins of Bhaskarbarman were found in Moinamoti of present Bangladesh[17]. According to Rhodes and Bose, these coins were made of Roman gold. Actually, Bhaskar Barman controlled the sea routes from Bay of Bengal and Roman ships often visited the Bay of Bengal at that time. This claim can be proved only after ‘trace element’ study of the coins.

We have no data on the organizational framework of gold production in ancient and medieval Assam before the advent of the Ahoms. There are many hints in Ahom chronicle about the existence of an organized system of gold production in pre Ahom Assam. Kochāri, Chutiā, and Kamtā Kingdoms were developed and stratified states, which existed before the advent of the Ahoms in Brahmaputra Valley. But most of the gold producing rivers were situated in Chutiā Kingdom. The Ahoms were able to occupy the triangular throne, umbrella and secptre, all made up of gold, after conquering the Chutiā Kingdom[18]. Ahoms also captured a lot of Chutiā gold washer after the fall of the Chutiā regime. Thus, the gold washers of Ahom kingdom were Chutiā subjects first[19]. Probably, after the last battle with the Chutiās in 1523-24, the Ahom organized the Sonowāls (the gold washers) of Chutiā Kingdom in a new airtight structure.             

Another developed kingdom of medieval Assam with a stratified society was the Kochāri Kingdom. In 1536, the Ahom captured Dimāpur, the capital of Kochāri kingdom. When the Ahoms captured Dimapur fort, they found sleeping bed and secptre made of gold, belonging to Kochāri King Detchung[20]. However, we have no data regarding the organizational structure of gold washing in Kochāri kingdom. After the fall of Dimāpur, a new Kochāri kingdom developed in Hills of North Cachar and the plains of Cachar district where Maibang and Khaspur were the capitals. We can conclude that a preliminary gold economy developed in this kingdom, because two gold coins were discovered which belongs to king Yasonārāyan (1583-1608)[21]. These are the only gold coin discovered in the geographical boundaries of Assam except the Pāgolātek gold hoard.

During Ahom period, the gold washers were known as the Sonowāls. At first, the Sonowāls identified the places along the river where the velocity of water current decreased. Then they collected sands from such places in big pan and shack move round with water. The gold particles have higher density than silicates. Therefore, they settled down at the bottom of the pan. The settled gold-sand mixture was collected separately. This method is known as ‘gravity separation” method.  When a considerable amount of gold particle was collected, mercury was poured on the mixture. At that, time mercury was known as “rah”. Mercury formed a mixture, technically known as amalgam, with gold and sands left on the pan. When gold amalgam was heated separately, the mercury vaporized immediately leaving the gold particles behind. These gold particles were taken in small standard sized earthen crucible and heated. Then they gold particles were melted, coalesce to form small balls of gold. These crucibles were known as “caru”. We find mentions of giving gift of one “caru” of gold and silver in ancient Assamese stories and chronicles[22].  But this golden “caru” is not equivalent with cooking “caru” (pot) used in Assam. There were roughly 15.18 gram gold in a “caru” where almost 30% was copper and silver impurity[23].

In reality, gold was a rare commodity in Ahom kingdom. Therefore, the Ahoms were never able to run real coin economy based on gold. During maximum production period, Ahom kingdom has able to produce only 82 kilogram of gold per years. No state was able to run a monetary economy based on this 82 kilogram of gold. In medieval Assam, only Koch kingdom was able to run a monetary economy. Even “Narayani coin’ minted in Koch royal mint were accepted western part of Ahom kingdom also[24]. The Koch kings were also not able to run a gold-based monetary economy. Gold coin minting was limited to ceremonial activity in both Koch and Ahom kingdom. In historical records, we find such ceremonial gold coin minting. When Tenzin Rabgye was appointed the 4th Temporal Ruler (sDe srid) of Bhutan in 1680, an emissary of the daughter of the late Raja Prana Narayan was present at the ceremony and he presented 700 gold coins and 1000 silver coins[25]. Ahom king Suhunmung also sent 200 gold coins to Temple of Jagannath in Orissa[26].  

In Ahom Kingdom, the use of gold as ornament was also very limited. Common citizens had no rights to use gold ornament. Even the officers had also to take permission to wear gold ornaments[27], [28]. The common “pāik” had not right on gold. The main cause of such restriction was the limited production of gold in Brahmaputra Valley. The production of gold in the Brahmaputra Valley was so limited that its production was possible only because of forced labour system in Ahom kingdom instead of paid labourer. Sonowāls (gold washers) had made to work by force in the name of “pāik” system. There was no system of paying wage to the gold washers. Every Sonowāl was made to deposit 1 tolā of gold per season. Moreover, there were other taxes for gold washers in separate forms[29]. The Sonowāl, who failed to deposit the fixed amount of gold and taxes, were severely punished. In such a force-labour system without investing any capital always gave profit only. The royal court very strictly controlled the distribution of gold by imposing several restrictions.

In Koch Kingdom, there was no such restriction on gold. If anyone had the capacity to buy gold, he or she had the right to wear gold ornaments. “Guru Charit Kotha” mentions shops of gold and silver in Koch Kingdom[30]. 

Though the Ahom Kingdom was an autocratic kingdom in general view, but the real power was concentrated in the hands of the 3 main ministers and a group of elites. Except limited powerful king like Suhungmung, Chakradhwaj Simha or Godādhor Simha, other kings could never ignore this elite group and ministers.          

The King imposed restriction of gold for the citizen, but the king had also no right on gold of royal treasury. Gold was the property of the state. If king wanted to make ornament or other gold utensil, he had to apply to a high level council composed with 3 ministers, Barbaruah (Chief judicial officer), 6 Phukans of royal court, and 12 Rājkhowas. If that council thought kings proposal legal, they  allow  to give gold to the king[31].

When King Chandrakanta Simha (1810-1818) wanted new ornaments, his Prime Minister Purnānanda Burhāgohāin flatly refused it. Purnānanda Burhāgohāin argued that during the coronation ceremony of king’s grandfather Gaurināth Simha, gold of rupees four lakh was to spend. Some amount of gold had to spend for the mercenaries coming out of Assam. The rest of the gold should be in royal treasury[32].      

But restriction was not always successful due to heavy corruption among higher officials. The Child King Chandrakanta Simha was forced to wear his ancestors’ larger rings with the help of old cloth wrapping the rings[33]. At the same time large amount of gold was deposited in houses of several powerful officials, like the customs officer (Duwariyā Baruah) of Hadira Cauki, The Borphukan (governor) of Guwahati, the treasury officers (Bhāndāri Baruah). 

24 pairs of  bangles, 100 gold plates, 100 gold bowls, 100 pots and countless gold ornaments were gifted as wedding endowment with daughter of Bodan Borphukan[34]. Like that when Ramdutta Baruah and his son Moniram Bhāndāri Baruah (later famous as Monirām Dewān) tried to measure their gold collection, they were not able to see each other because of the presence of the huge pile of gold between them. At that time Ramdutta Baruah told his son Moniram that it was enough gold for them. Now he should take care of the state[35].

There was a tradition of donating gold to Brahmin and the deity in Ahom kingdom. But previously that was limited to 1 caru of gold (1 caru =15.18 gm), gold ring or golden holy thread. But in later days situation changed. When king Rajeswara Simha visited lower Assam, he donated 1 gold plate, one gold pot, 3 gold umbrella and 100 tolās (1.16646 kg) of gold to temple of Hayagriba Mādhab.  Moreover he donated 400 tolās (4.66584kg) of gold to Kāmākhya, Ashwakranta, Kānāi Borisi Bowā, Ugratārā, Navagraha, Basistha and Gopeswawa each, and 100 tolās (1.16646 kg) to Biswanāth temple[36]. Captain Welsh came to Assam to control the Moāmoriyā Revolution. After defeating the Moāmoriyās, he received a huge amount of gold from the royal treasury[37]. Thus, gold collected in Ahom royal treasury through imposing strict control, drained very easily in a very short period. Situation was so worse after the Moāmoriyā Revolution that there was no gold in Royal treasury to buy gun powder for the newly formed regular army.

Kochāri and Koch Kingdom had a dimplomatic and commercial relation with other states of rest of India.   

So they had the opportunity to buy gold from other sources. But due to their strict anti-commerce policy, the Ahom kingdom was completely dependent on river placer deposit of Upper Assam. Result was strict gold control policy. It was only after British occupation then, a small gold market was developed depending on the newly formed nascent middle class.

References:

Assamese:

1.Goswami, Dr Malini (Edited) (2005): Bānbhatta Birochit Harsacharita, Asom Prakashan Parisad, Guwahati-21

2.Chaudhuri, Dr Rabin Dev (1992): Asomat Purattatik Adhyanar Agragati, Parboti Prakashan, Panbazar, Guwahati-1

3.Tamuli, Lakhinath (Edited)(2007): Naoboisa Phukanar Asom Buranji , Asom Prakashan Parisad, Guwahati-21

4.Debasharma, Rajanikānta (Edi)(2001): Kautilyar Artha Shāstra Asom Prakashan Parisad, Guwahati-21

5.Neog, Dr Maheswar (2003): Guru Chorit Kathā, University Publication Division, Guwahati University, Assam.

6.Bhattacharya, Dr Jayanta Bhushan ((1993): Kachāri Rājyar Utthan Äru patan, Asom Sahitya Sobha, Jorhat-1 

7.Bhuyan, Dr Surya Kumar (2010): Asom Buranji (Found in Sukumar Mahanta’s house), The Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Govt. of Assam, Guwahati

8.Bhuyan, Dr Surya Kumar (1990): Harakānta Sodorāminar Asom Buranji, The Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Govt. of Assam, Guwahati.

9.Bhuyan, Dr Surya Kumar (2009): Sātsori Asom Buranji, Bani Mandir, Guwahati-3 

10.Bhuyan, Dr Surya Kumar (2014): Swargadeu Rajeswar Singha, Asom Prakashan Parisad, Guwahati-21

11.Saikia, Dr Nagen (2014): Benudhar Sarma Rachanawali, Asom Prakashan Parisad, Guwahati-21

English:

1.Baishya, Dinesh (2009): Traditional Science and Material Culture of Early Assam, EBH Publishers (India), Guwahati-781001.

2.Bur Bundaree, Moneeram Revenue Sheristadar (1838): Native Account of Gold in Assam, The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal”, Vol VII.

3.Choudhury, P. C (1959): History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelve century AD, Department of Historical and Antiquarian studies in Assam, Guwahati.

4.Dalton, E. J. T (1853): Account of a visit to the Jugloo and Seesee in Upper Assam together with a note on the Gold Fields of that Province by Major Hanny, Journal f Asiatic Society of Bengal, No, VI.

5.Deka, Pranav Jyoti (June, 1968): Certain aspects of metallogeny of gold and some associated minerals in the region of Burmese Arc, Journal of Mines, Metals and fuels, 6/2 Madan Street, Calcutta-13.

6.Dutta-Baruah, Caroline (2008): Adventures of of Jean-Baptist Chevalier in Eastern India (1752-1765), LBS Publications, and Guwahati.

7.Hamilton, Francis (1963): An Account of Assam, The Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Govt. of Assam, Guwahati

8.Pommaret, Françoise (1999): Ancient Trade Partners: Bhutan and Cooch Bihar and Assam (17th - 19th centuries), Journal Asiatique, 1999 Vol. 287

9.Robinson, William (2011): A Descriptive account of Assam, Edited by Dr Ramesh Chandra Kalita, Bhabani Print and Publications, Guwahati-781026

10.Rhodes, N.G and Bose, Sk.K (2003): Coinage of Assam, Vol I, Kolkata-41.

11.Sarma, Dr Dimbeswar (Edited)(1981): Kamrupa Sasanavali, Publication Board, Guwahati, Assam.

12.Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, Baron of Aubonne (1676): Travels in India, Vol.II, Translated from Original France Edition of 1676,   by V Ball, MacMillan and Co, London, 1889.

[1] Kampupa sasanavali, page 173

[2] Adventures of of Jean-Baptist Chevalier in Eastern India, page 32

[3] Travels in India, Vol.II, Page.281

[4] Travels in India, Vol.II, Page.281

[5] Adventures of of Jean-Baptist Chevalier in Eastern India, page 167, 173

[6] A Descriptive account of Assam,  page 38

[7] Account of Assam, page 49

[8] Native Account of Gold in Assam, The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal”, Vol VII

[9] Account of a visit to the Jugloo and Seesee in Upper Assam together with a note on the Gold Fields of that Province by Major Hanny, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, No, VI.

[10]  History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelve century AD, Page 370

[11] Traditional Science and Material Culture of Early Assam, page 313

[12] Artha Sāstra, page 54, 56.

[13] Artha Sāstra, page, 60

[14] Certain aspects of metallogeny of gold and some associated minerals in the region of Burmese Arc,

[15] Harsacharita, page 194.

[16]Axomat Purātwāttik Adhyayanr Agragati, page-45

[17] Coinage of Assam, Vol. 1, Pre Ahom Period, page. 12, 16

[18] Harakāntahrka¯© bñwa sdraimnr Asm bur×I, p‽ùa 24

[19]Chutiā Jātir Buranji, page-401

[20] Deodhai Axom Buranji, page 35-37

[21] Kochāri Rajya: Utthān āru patan, page-100

[22] “Moi chomdeor agrat subarna ak caru āru rajato ak caru disilo” Sātsori Asom Buranji, page 510

[23] Jyoti Bilingual Thesaurus, page 157

[24] “Äru majundar baruāi kāmrupat 24000 narani tākā tahsil hoi.”--Harakānta Sadarāminar Asom Buranji, page-124

[25] Journal Asiatique, Vol. 287, page. 285-303

[26] Asom Buranji, Edited by Surya Kumar Bhuyan, 1945, page. 23

[27]“Xonar moni, āngothi, thuriā ādi nipindhiba… Ahamoro ji jimānar mānuh, xeimānehe kariba. Borhā xunile kātim”…Sātsori Asom Buranji, page 42.

[28] “….Aañ brBaÜar bñwa h’elf jaipt rUpr cUNa, pih^ caiÐ pay, Ef duqa d\bY~l jnab nalaeg| esaNr Kañ O eqmI l’b~l jnab laeg” (hrka¯© sdraimnr Asm bur×I, p‽ùa-104)

[29] Benudhar Sharma Rachanawali, page 1061

[30] “Uttam mohājoniyā Dokāni Hirā ratnarajat subarna bākhar mānik bese pai…” Guru Charit kotha, page-289

[31] Nāaboisā Phukanar Asom Buranji, page. 192.

[32] “Apar Gaurināth Simha Swargadeuk Singari gharat tolote sone dhone sāri lakhya takā kharas hal, bāki ji āsil tāre kisu son dhanere sipāhi saranjām ānote kharas hoi goise. ----Akhan desat rajā hoi thākile kisu son-dhan rājyar bharālat thākiba pai”----Nāaboisā Phukanar Asom Buranji, page. 168

[33] Nāaboisā Phukanar Asom Buranji, page. 168

[34] Nāaboisā Phukanar Asom Buranji, page. 165

[35] “Bāpā Ämār fāle hoise āru. Dhan sopāba nālāge, dexor fālehe sāba lage”—Benudhar Sharma Rochonawali, page 1001.

[36] Swargadeu Rajeswar Simha, page 87

[37] Tungkhungiyā Buranji, page-129